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Many strains of E. coli are beneficial commensals while others (pathogenic strains) can cause several gastro-intestinal and urinary tract infections (UTIs). The majority of UTIs are caused by uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC), which affects 150 million people worldwide. UTIs are an especially important cause of morbidity and mortality among infants, older people, and women (Flores-Mireles et al., 2015). UPEC infection of the urinary bladder is countered by innate defences of the host, including influx of anti-bacterial neutrophils and epithelial exfoliation at the infected site. UPEC has been known to replicate inside bladder cells in biofilm-like communities within bulging globular structures called “pods”...

Academic and pharmaceutical companies have invested substantial resources in developing predictive models for human physiology and disease states. However, conventional 2D cell culture models in tissue culture flasks are simplistic and do not recapitulate tissue-level architecture and organ microenvironments. More complex in-vitro systems such as trans-well inserts and organoids are more complex...